Language and the United Nations

Study Group on Language and the United Nations

Symposium on

The United Nations at 75:
Listening, Talking and Taking Action in a Multilingual World

FINAL REPORT

New York, 9-10 May 2019 Church Center, 777 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017

Edited by Jazreth Diago, Casey Gallagher and Shanna Kirgan Teachers College, Columbia University

NOTE. The following report is based on notes taken by the rapporteurs in the course of the symposium and does not necessarily represent the exact comments of the participants.

1. Introduction

During the UN’s declared “Year of Indigenous Languages”, this annual conference on multilingualism holds a special significance. While not all speakers directly analysed the topic, indigenous language rights remained an undercurrent of the event. From discussing policies that favour dominant languages over local languages, to revitalization efforts and the potential benefits to such efforts from technology and globalization, the promise and challenges of raising up marginalized voices and languages were evident.

With this in mind, another major theme running through this year’s conference came from the first word of its title - listening. As symposium participants listened to colleagues discuss research, projects, and other scholarly work, they gained ideas on methodologies and practices to build on and advance in their own work. The conference also highlighted the seemingly obvious yet oft overlooked importance of listening not only to actors within diplomatic, academic, or NGO sectors, but also to the many people directly and indirectly impacted by the work of these groups. Thus, this listening must be done not only in the dominant languages of these arenas, but in indigenous languages around the world. Participants were also pushed to expand their conceptions of listening beyond hearing with our ears, to taking in cultural cues and listening to those in the d/Deaf community as they sign. Furthermore, this conference offered space to talk and listen as these ideas were shared in order to prepare participants to take actions on the issues of languages and listening discussed.

The following report on this year’s symposium of the Study Group on Languages and the UN, whose topic was The United Nations at 75: Listening, Talking and Taking Action in a Multilingual World, includes a summary of the keynote addresses, panel discussions, and the two-day conference activities. We hope that it will assist participants and readers to continue to listen and talk, and to work towards improvements before reconvening next year’s symposium. The themes presented call on readers to think critically about language and its implications. They also bring to light deeper issues with the UN’s use of its six working languages in interacting with the global citizens among whom its policies are disseminated, as well as promote ideas for bottom up approaches to dominant language learning and local language revitalization. Coming out of the symposium and a reading of this summary, the hope is that participants recognize the need to continuously engage in how we all talk about, actively listen to, and act on language issues and policies around the world.

2. Attendance and Programme Overview

This year’s symposium was attended by an estimated one hundred attendees, including a diversity of representatives from the United Nations, non-profit organizations, and the private sector, academics, students, and other practitioners interested in promoting the importance of languages.

A combination of paper presentations, keynote addresses, and panel discussions was planned over the course of the two day symposium. Thursday’s programme included welcoming remarks from Humphrey Tonkin (University of Hartford; Director, Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems), keynote addresses from Thomas Ricento (University of Calgary) and Iris Orris (Facebook), a panel discussion on Language and the UN by members of the international organization, and four thematic sessions of paper presentations on Language and Organizations, Multilingualism at Work, Minority and Indigenous Languages, and, again, Language and the UN.

Friday’s proceedings continued with a welcome and keynote address from H.E. Ambassador Narjess Saidane (Permanent Observer of the International Organization of La Francophonie to the United Nations), a panel discussion on Language and the UN from a diplomatic perspective, an update of RedT’s work with translators and interpreters from Maya Hess, an acknowledgment of the 30th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and four more paper sessions. The first paper session built upon Thursday’s discussions of Minority and Indigenous Languages and the remaining three sessions offered a comprehensive view of Multilingualism and Education.

Each day’s content was summarized in closing remarks. To conclude, participants were given a preview for next year’s symposium, “Language and Migration: Experience and Memory,” which will take place on 7- 9 May in two locations: New York City and Princeton, New Jersey.

3. Welcoming Remarks

Humphrey Tonkin (Symposium Chair)

Tonkin began the event with an introduction to the The Study Group on Language and the United Nations and a tribute to the late Kurt Müller in his admirable work with language issues in military contexts and beyond. He recalled the discussions of 1983’s World Communications Year, during which nearly all aspects of communication were addressed--except for the topic of languages. In recent years, various actors have made the argument to the United Nations (and the UN Department of Global Communications) to focus on languages in their work around the world. There is, however, still a need for greater cooperation amongst civil society and organizational partnerships in bringing issues in languages and multilingualism to their attention. Language, in short, is more than a technical matter: it is the heart and soul of the organization.

This is a difficult moment in the International Languages field. There are now changes in the way that the UN conducts its business, as there is a growing awareness that the UN cannot do everything alone. Tonkin emphasized the need to partner with civil society and other international organizations, as development cannot only trickle down from the top. In this work, scholars and practitioners must continue to call for languages and linguistic diversity to receive the recognition and attention they deserve.

This conference, entitled “The United Nations at 75: Listening, Talking and Taking Action in a Multilingual World,” is about dialogue which, Tonkin reminded participants, includes listening as well as speaking. For a true partnership, the UN must listen to the public in the public’s languages. People of influence must actually listen to those they are serving, in the languages these communities express themselves in. Development agencies cannot think of those they serve as passive recipients of aid, but rather as partners and experts. Tonkin concluded by highlighting that more work is being done at the local level, while still calling for a more bottom-up approach to language policy. Never before has language-- and languages in general-- been more important.

4. Summary of Panel Presentations and Discussions

Day 1: Language and the UN: The View from Within

Moderator: Carole Maisonneuve (Public Information and Multilingualism Coordination Officer, DGACM, United Nations); Panellists: H.E. Amb. Maged Abdelaziz (Permanent Observer of the League of Arab States to the United Nations), Maher Nasser (Outreach Division, UN Department of Global Communications), Jean-Victor Nkolo (Office of the Special Adviser on Africa, United Nations), Aruna Thanabalasingam (UN Department of Management Strategy, Policy and Compliance)

Carole Maisonneuve moderated the discussion on languages within the United Nations and how languages are discussed and used in various capacities. Maisonneuve urged panellists to speak about their experiences as multilinguals in the field and how multilingualism might affect further recruitment. The panel also discussed balancing technical and linguistic skills in the hiring process.

When asked about the goals in hiring a workforce, Aruna Thanabalsingam emphasized multilingualism as a priority of the Secretary General, and that initiatives have begun to make it a core value. As an expert in human resources from the UN Department of Management Strategy, Policy and Compliance, Thanabalsingam discussed how both technical competencies and language skills are reconciled in the United Nations hiring process. While the linguistic competence of the staff is prioritized in hiring both generalists and specialists, Thanabalsingam admits that work is still needed on developing a competency exam with efficient assessment criteria of language skills-- both in recruitment and after acquiring the job. She acknowledged the need for multitalented, multilingual, and multicultural people in order to have strategic workforce planning and an inventory of language skill sets. This must be integrated in staff selection and professional development to better match the communities served and, in part, remain relevant. It is essential to assess employees’ needs and to support their linguistic development, helping them become more aware of the cultural contexts in which they work.

Representing the Outreach Division of the UN Department of Global Communications, Maher Nasser shared the Outreach Division mandate for communicating the happenings of the United Nations through media accessible to as many people as possible. Despite a zero growth budget, the Division’s websites and materials are translated into more than 35 languages, and a creative team works to make the legal jargon more comprehensible. Nasser gave the example of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) symbol, with its colourful wheel and the simplified naming and symbolizing of each goal. With two-thirds of young people getting their information from social media, the Outreach Division is more concerned about the platform used, rather than the language in which the information is disseminated. To Thanabalsingam’s point of trying to balance linguistic and technical skills in hiring, Nasser added that someone with brilliant technical skills may come across as less competent in an interview that does not accommodate the candidate’s language skills. For Nasser, the goal in thinking about linguistics in hiring should be to recognize that privileging dominant language fluency (particularly English) prevents the organization from hiring the best and most highly skilled professionals and that the organization should work to find ways to keep language from barring those individuals from jobs they are qualified to have. Here, moderator Maisonneuve commended the EU’s use of multiple languages in interviews and the need for those hired to be multilingual.

UN Senior Officer of the Office of Special Adviser on Africa, Jean-Victor Nkolo, returned for a second year to participate in the symposium and discuss the place of language skills in fieldwork. Echoing Nasser’s comments, he said that the pre-selection process tests the talent and competence of examinees, but though English is used for all examinations, the location and context in which the exams are written and taken makes a difference. He pointed to the role of languages in the history and developing conflict in Cameroon. This conflict between anglophone and francophone Cameroon is a direct and (to the outsider) puzzling legacy of colonization. In keeping with the theme of the symposium, he stressed the importance of listening and acting, since failing to understand and take action will only exacerbate the violence.

Ambassador Maged Abdelzaziz spoke from his experience as an Egyptian and international diplomat in describing how the League of Arab States carries out its work. When asked to comment on language within the League, Ambassador Abdelzaziz answered that standard Arabic is used in the 22 states and that, while having an official language ensures efficiency of internal functioning, there are still differences in language use for each country. Communication flow used in reports such as concept notes and thinking papers go from the bottom up: from regional experts to the senior regional manager, all of whom pass tests in Arabic -- to ensure that standards are maintained. Echoing Nasser’s funding concerns, Ambassador Abdelzaziz stated that budget considerations remain one of the reasons behind the power dynamics that exist between dominant and non-dominant languages. He also mentioned the need for government organizations to shift their focus to the people they work with.

Day 2: Language and the UN: The Diplomatic View

Moderator: Rosemary Salomone (St. John’s University); Panellists: H.E. Ambassador Issa Konfourou (Permanent Representative of Mali to the United Nations), H.E. Ambassador Louise Blais (Deputy Permanent Representative of Canada to the United Nations), Nuno Mathias (Deputy Permanent Representative of Portugal to the United Nations), Daniel Prada (Counsellor, Permanent Mission of Spain to the United Nations)

Professor Rosemary Salomone of St John’s University Law School, New York, moderated Friday’s discussion panel, which followed the Keynote Address of Ambassador Narjess Saidane, Permanent Observer of the International Organization of La Francophonie to the United Nations (see the summary below). Professor Salomone, herself a scholar of language issues, drew the panel’s attention to 1) the use of language inside the United Nations and 2) the efforts to promote multilingualism both within the organization and in the broader civil society. She invited Ambassador Saidane to join the panel, and called attention to the Ambassador’s point in her Keynote Address regarding the tension between inclusion (who can participate) and efficiency (finding a common language) in the ever growing use of English as a lingua franca. This served as a jumping-off point for the discussion.

Ambassador Issa Konfourou began his remarks by pointing out that the multicultural challenges within the United Nations also exist outside the organization, internationally. He stressed the problems with using English as the lingua franca of debates in the UN, and argued that asking for the official French translation of English negotiations in order to participate is ineffective. Negotiations continue and sometimes decisions are reached all while waiting for the translation from English to French before the Mali government can even add their voice, causing further delay in receiving a reply on issues under discussion.

Ambassador Konfourou gave the personal example of Mali, which has been hosting peacekeeping operations since 2013. With debates held in English, Mali’s official language being French, and local communities speaking their own local languages, great challenges arise in how to implement and disseminate translated policy and ensure equal footing in negotiation of these policies. With forty local languages and the majority of the Mali population speaking languages other than French, even a translated explanation of official documents in French is not accessible to most. This excludes many people from participating in decisions that affect their lives and weakens policies and declarations which are not translated properly. Salomone stressed that the difficulties raised by Ambassador Konfourou -- the issue of conveying information to officials at home, and then to a larger population in countries that speak languages other than the UN official languages-- is insufficiently discussed, let alone addressed.

In support of this view, Deputy Permanent Representative Nuno Mathias referenced the demand for Portuguese to be added to the list of UN official languages, with over 270 million speakers and nine countries that list it as an official language. Portuguese is used in social media, peacekeeping operations, and various international organizations. The UN has been attentive to the growing number of Portuguese speakers, and how Portuguese is now a rising global universal language.

Ambassador Saidane brought the ideas of the last two panellists together in speaking about Francophone Africa and the large number of French speakers and countries who have declared French as their official language. She spoke of a trend in Francophone Africa, where, over all, the number of French speakers is growing because of the rising population of French speakers in countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Concentrating on the demographic of speakers, however, places linguists in a position of having to justify the value of other languages compared to English. Even in Francophone countries, the use of French is justified for being efficient and globally competitive, implying that other languages--and even the cultures and people associated with them-- are not. Ambassador Konfourou, she added, rightly distinguished between the market numbers and what it means to truly be “efficient.”

Ambassador Louise Blais, Deputy Permanent Representative of Canada to the United Nations, was asked if she considered Canada to be in “the perfect position,” having two languages of the UN as official languages. Blais responded that it is an advantage, but also pointed out the country’s challenge of equally representing indigenous peoples’ languages and the growing number of languages of refugees and migrants. Blais did agree with Ambassador Konfourou that an economic definition of efficiency sometimes takes precedence over real communication. In order to be efficient, shortcuts are often taken and the impacts are most felt on the ground. Rather, she argued, organizations like the UN need to address linguistic power dynamics and the idea that people feel inadequate when they do not understand another’s language. The UN must do better to offer multilingual services so no one gets left behind simply because of the language they speak or are most comfortable speaking in.

Counsellor Daniel Prada from the Permanent Mission of Spain to the United Nations spoke of the Friends of Spanish, a group formed in 2015 by representatives of several Spanish speaking countries with the goal of defending and promoting multilingualism in the United Nations. While Spanish is one of the six official languages of the UN, the members of this group claim that it is not used in parity with other official languages, particularly English. Counsellor Prada furthered the arguments of other panellists in claiming that if culture was taken into account in decision making, the UN could do a better job of including multilingual teams in the making of policies. Resources, policies, and other UN documents must not only be translated into other languages: they must be created in these languages to begin with — a point which other panellists argued and Prada built on, adding the cultural component. He advanced a definition of efficiency that focused on inclusion as he maintained that multilingualism in the drafting of UN documents is, in fact, efficient because it would make the UN’s work more accessible to those who use languages other than English.

In further discussion, the panellists tackled issues of language and migration, and posed the question: In these contexts, which languages should be taught in the home and in schools? In Canada, Ambassador Blais said, the challenge is to make sure that indigenous and migrant populations feel included and accepted and the multicultural nature of Canada is preserved. She pointed to the example of Turkey’s acceptance of over 3.7 million Syrian refugees in the past five years, asserting that the Turkish government has done a fairly good job of providing public services in Arabic, while stressing that refugees must also learn Turkish to survive, or to attend a university in Turkey. Ambassador Blais then explained how public education in Canada is provincial and programming outside school aims to retain languages, but she acknowledged that the system is far from perfect. She concluded by calling everyone’s attention back to the Year of Indigenous Languages as one way of partnering with the UN for awareness of the cause of preserving local languages and including them in education.

In response, Ambassador Konfourou proudly stated that Mali is a country that welcomes migrants. He argued that the flow of people has existed as long as people have been on earth and that migration cannot simply be stopped. Thus, organizations, international agencies, and other actors must concentrate their efforts on better organizing the policies behind migration. Nuno Mathias pointed out that Portugal’s President welcomes Syrian refugees and gives scholarships to empower youth, while Daniel Prada explained that Spain is also a strong advocate for migrants. In both Portugal and Spain, many migrants arrive from other Portuguese and Spanish speaking countries, respectively, which helps the communities become integrated.

The floor was opened to questions after the discussion, and the panellists reiterated the importance of starting official conversations and documents in the languages of whichever country those documents pertain to. Strengthening the training of the UN staff and military (peacekeeping) both in their language skills and technical skills is a necessity as well. In conclusion, the panellists stressed that multilingualism, education, and peacebuilding are linked to migration and that, when peace and stability are fostered and people are provided with basic needs—such as water, food, health, schools, and energy—development actors and practitioners must also focus on issues of gender equality and multilingualism.

5. Keynote Addresses

Day 1: Conceptualizing Language: Linguistic Theory & Language Policy (Thomas Ricento)

With a background in political science, formal linguistics, and functional/applied linguistics, Professor Ricento’s keynote address focused on the cross sections of language theory and language policy and what this intersection means in reality. He began by introducing prominent figures in the social sciences -- such as Darwin, Chomsky, Sir William Jones, and John Stuart Mill -- in thinking about language and relationships between languages. He then brought attention to prominent figures in counter-movements -- such as Dell Hymes, Paul Hopper, Ana Celia Zantella, and Jan Blommaert -- who added to how people think about language. With all of this history, it is important to think about the language used in talking about language, including how certain languages are put into a hierarchy, how languages are thought of as standardized or fluid, and how literacy and illiteracy are conceived.

Ricento then offered a familiar example of the intersection of language theory, policy, and context-- Canada. Officially, Canada is a bilingual country, but this label does not completely and accurately represent reality. First, Ricento described the socially constructed power dynamics behind asking: where, when, and for what is a particular language used? Second, in declaring Canada as simply bilingual (specifically, French and English), as opposed to multilingual, indigenous and migrant languages and those who use them are left out.

Ricento ended his address with a list of conclusions regarding the relation of language theory and policy, centred mainly on the power dynamics of language, who gets to define “normal” or “standard” languages, and the issues of trying to decide which language is the “best” to learn. He compared the pressing challenges of language policy with climate change, in that both call for increased understanding of ideas surrounding the issues and the impact humans have on both the earth and on languages. He stressed the importance of unpacking what it means to be bilingual and the need to address the lack of inclusion of minority languages in language policy and power settings overall.

Day 1: Facilitating Linguistic Diversity in Social Media (Iris Orriss)

Offering a unique and critical perspective from the private-sector, Iris Orriss (Director of Internationalization, Facebook) spoke on Facebook’s initiatives to address language as a global social media presence. As one of Facebook’s main goals is to connect people around the world, and citing that over half of the world’s 4.4 billion internet users are on the site, Orriss posed the question: how many languages does it take to connect 7.7 billion people? Though Orriss noted that there are over seven thousand known languages, a significant 98% of people can be connected with just 800 languages, and as much as 80% can be reached with just ten languages. Of Facebook’s 2.38 billion users, she said, about one billion access the site in English while the remaining 1.3 billion access the site in other languages.

To meet the demands of users who expect content to be posted in an accessible language, Facebook’s app reads the language of the user’s device and triangulates that data with location services to display suggested regional languages for the user to choose from on the sign-up page. Orriss said that when people are “served the right language from the beginning,” they are not only more likely to be engaged in the site, but also more likely to continue using Facebook in their primary language or a locally available language (and, therefore, turn away from simply choosing dominant internet languages, such as English).

Acknowledging language as “a living system,” Orriss then introduced Facebook’s work on crowdsourced translations, harnessing the linguistic knowledge of billions of users through their Speak Love campaign. With community translation, users can offer feedback and vote on alternative translations for words and phrases in a language for which they have registered to help curate, using a gamified process and earning achievement points along the way. Experts from language communities are consulted to deal with linguistic varieties and ensure translations go beyond simply the “best” and “standard” versions of languages to which Ricento alluded. While certain endangered languages have been launched on Facebook, Orriss emphasized the importance of communities demanding their own linguistic representation and offering translations; if users “don’t do enough,” their language may not be fully launched on the platform. However, Orriss concluded her address by assuming the best of community translators and their intentions, and reiterated that Facebook is a mission-driven company whose goal of bringing the world together aligns with the work of the United Nations itself.

Day 2: Multilingualism: An Essential Requirement for Revitalizing International Relations (H.E. Ambassador Narjess Saidane)

Aiming to contribute to the political significance of multilingualism, Ambassador Saidane shared her views on the art of having different individuals live together in as much harmony as possible. She emphasized how increasingly important it is to invite English speakers to re-examine the relevance of multilingualism, applying French political scientist Bertrand Badie’s theory of the strategic use of humiliation to the field of international relations. Humiliation as a political strategy threatens the possibility of cooperative coexistence.

In Badie’s theory, there are four types of humiliation: belittlement, denial, relegation, and stigmatization. In belittlement, adversaries are pushed down and lowered in status. Humiliation through denial of equality systematically excludes majorities and is visible in crisis management. Relegation is the dismissal of others’ problems as unimportant. Lastly, in stigmatization, the values and cultures of “the other” are mocked.

Further, Badie’s paradigm links the above types of humiliation to four models of diplomacy: revanchist, sovereigntism, contestation, and deviance. Revanchist diplomacy is diplomacy through revenge. Sovereigntism puts national sovereignty at the core of international relations. Contestation is the protest against international order. Finally, deviance is deviation from the norm.

As a suggested solution to these patterns of humiliation and resulting flawed diplomacies, Amb. Saidane called for the reinforcement of multilateralism, and the use of inclusive tools to engage actors in solidarity, recognition, and interdependence. Multilingualism has become critical in reshaping the international system, and people and organizations can use it to better communicate in a way that makes work feel shared and beneficial to all. Though there are short-term threats, such as reform and budgeting within organizations, multilingualism is geared towards long-term capacity building. However, the UN’s multilingual efforts, while they exist, are insufficient.

Echoing sentiments from panels summarized above (on Day 1 and Day 2), Amb. Saidane reminded participants that resolutions are negotiated in English and are only translated when an agreement has been reached, thereby excluding the participation of member state representatives who use languages other than English. Rather, the UN must be equipped to operationalize translation and documentation of negotiation proceedings for better communication during negotiation instead of leaving translation until after the fact.

The perception that multilingualism stands against modernity and efficiency still exists, and the international relations community, in particular, has not responded to calls for linguistic and cultural diversity. Short-term, Saidane commented, monolingual practices risk depriving the UN of their ability to recognize and serve the best interests of people. In the long term, practitioners risk facing setbacks on commitments to human rights, migrant rights, and women’s rights that society has already made progress towards. In conclusion, Saidane stated, the international relations community can no longer maintain a system that marginalizes Otherness, including “non-dominant” languages.

6. Summary of Papers

Day 1: Session 1: Language & Organizations, Chair: Humphrey Tonkin (President Emeritus, University of Hartford)

Lisa McEntee-Atalianis and Rachelle Vessey (Birkbeck, University of London) argued that member states are key agents in LPP at the UN and their uptake of the language agenda is integral to its success. The effectiveness and nature of this bottom-up agency can be assessed by considering alignments with, and/or resistance to, top-down institutional policy/discourse over time. To test this model of agency, they examined interventions made in the United Nations General Debates sessions using the UN General Debates Corpus which consists of 7701 files gathered from 1970 to 2016 (Mikhaylov, Baturo and Dasandi, 2017). They mapped the shifting ideological landscape and language (policy) discourses across political periods. The paper assessed the merits of using corpus linguistics to identify change agents in the dataset, mapping the shifting ideological landscape and language (policy) discourses across political periods. The study contributes to research on organisational LPP specifically and to methodological innovations within the field of LPP more generally. It also has implications for policy makers/implementers who must attend to the ‘bottom up’ influence and concerns of their organisational membership on language issues.

Pivoting to discuss a bottom-up approach to addressing specific language skills capabilities, Francis M. Hult (Jönköping University / Lund University, Sweden) detailed the strategy employed by Lund University to support its staff’s English language development to match an increasingly international student population. The language learning programme, based on Cooper’s seminal work, Language Planning and Social Change (1989), drew on focus groups and surveys to develop courses that staff could choose in order to meet professional linguistic needs that would be most helpful in their day-to-day work. While there is no formal exam or audit on the effectiveness of the courses yet, Hult explained that the initial feedback has been positive and that there is the possibility to extend this strategy to design language programmes by first looking at intended outcomes and student needs.

Day 1: Session 2: Multilingualism at Work, Chair: Timothy Reagan (University of Maine)

Jasone Cenoz and Durk Gorter (University of the Basque Country, Spain) discussed efforts in revitalizing the Basque language and its use both in professional spaces and in guaranteeing linguistic rights. Their qualitative research revealed the need for Basque professionally on a local level, and also for a more internationally used language for global career tracks. The main conclusions from this research centred around cultivating sustainable multilingualism on both micro and macro levels. On the macro level, specifically, the speakers also pointed to the need to navigate between global and local language uses and to recognize that multilingualism is relevant for large institutions, such as the UN, to promote as well.

Remaining in the realm of multilingualism in organizations, Angela Crack (University of Portsmouth, UK) explored how NGOs’ reliance on carefully curated proposals to reach funding goals can negatively affect their ability to listen to the needs of the communities in which they work. Donors often privilege proposals fluent in a donor-focused language, likely not the main language of the beneficiaries. Relatedly, proposals are often filled with NGO jargon--including buzzwords, such as “empowerment”- which may have no direct translation into a given community’s language. Key recommendations of the study included making space for translation in project budgets, working with local interpreters to share information, and translating successful projects into local languages. Crack also suggested conducting needs assessments to include community feedback and address language issues early into projects. In doing so, it is also important to support Southern NGOs and build their repertoire of key terms used in the NGO world.

Amy Jo Minett (Salem State University), Sarah Dietrich (Southeast Missouri State University), and Didem Ekici (University of San Francisco) discussed research they coordinated with a service-learning project of the NGO Pax Populi, which entailed TESOL graduate students in the US conducting online English courses with students in Afghanistan. In analysing reflective journals, interview transcripts, and tutor voices, the authors discovered three themes of “equality in dialogue”: shared agency meant that the tutor-tutee relationship should focus on “power with” rather than “power over” in the learning process; “profound listening” included the tutor listening deeply not only to their tutee, but also to their own inner monologue. Finally, “critical hope” centred on the tutors’ ability to stand in solidarity with students and their communities. Minnet, Dietrich and Ekici concluded that while equality in dialogue is usually overlooked, it creates benefits for both tutors and tutees.

Day 1: Session 3: Minority/Indigenous Languages, Chair: Carol Benson (Teachers College, Columbia University)

Timothy Reagan (University of Maine) addressed the need to officially recognize sign languages in their various forms and dialects as society does with oral and written languages. Noting common misconceptions of sign languages -- e.g., they are not complete languages, have no grammar, are too simple to express complex ideas, and are universal-- Reagan explained the importance of protecting the rights of sign language users at constitutional, legislative, and regulatory levels. He pointed to New Zealand and Ireland’s recognition of sign language as an official language and South Africa’s movement to do so, but also maintained that sign language is differentiated even within a country due to the relative isolation of Deaf communities. Reagan concluded by emphasizing the need to view the use of sign languages from an empowerment rather than a disability standpoint, and to expand access and interpretation services for those in the Deaf community.

Drawing attention again to the UN’s declared Year of Indigenous Languages, Jeanne McGill (Indiana University) shared her finding that accrediting official status for minority and indigenous languages does not actually protect them. In fighting for nondominant language protection, McGill argued, people must see the benefits of multilingualism and the inclusion of indigenous languages in society, and people must value the languages themselves beyond their mere functionality as modes of communication. Despite official status, the use of indigenous and minority languages does not often extend beyond primary education. She explained that education systems are set in the culture of the dominant language, pointing to the cases of the Sami language group in Russia, Norway, Sweden, and Finland; the Inuktitut in Nunavut, Canada; and the multiple official languages of South Africa. Ultimately, McGill found that top-down approaches are not enough and that nondominant languages must be strategically incorporated into various spheres of society.

Day 1: Session 4: Language and the UN, Chair: Francis Hult (Jönköping University / Lund University, Sweden)

To conclude Thursday’s paper sessions, Phindile Alice Dlamini (University of Swaziland) discussed the linguistic power inequities of UN treaties in eSwatini. As a citizen of a small African country, Dlamini described the country’s bilingual eSwatini and English landscape, in which English is favoured as the dominant language in education and politics. This creates a disconnect between the messages of UN treaties, leaving most of the content accessible only to English-speaking elites. When treaties are negotiated and drafted in English, much of the original sentiment seems lost in translation and speakers of eSwatini are never given the opportunity to share their perspectives. Dlamini called on the UN to recognize language rights and translate technical terms to local languages, such that the voices of all eSwatini people are reflected and effectively communicated to the people they address.

Day 2: Session 5: Minority/Indigenous Languages, Chair: Lisa McEntee-Atalianis (Birkbeck, University of London)

Belma Haznedar and Ismail Avcı-Bucaklisi (Boğaziçi University, Turkey) discussed their linguistic research in Turkey on the importance of intergenerational transmission of Laz—an endangered heritage language. Acknowledging the dominance of the national language of Turkish in nearly all aspects of society, they distributed a questionnaire on frequency and overall use of Laz to its speakers in the Black Sea and Marmara regions of Turkey. An overwhelming amount of respondents (84%) felt it is important to maintain and preserve the Laz language. Haznedar and Avcı-Bucaklisi concluded with a call for Turkey to celebrate linguistic diversity and take macro-level action to promote it.

In their presentation on indigenous languages in Colombia, Germana Carolina Soler Millán and Guillaume Bruno Roux (University of Caldas, Colombia) addressed government pushback against a bilingual society. Citing successful bilingual educational models in Mexico, Colombia, and Guatemala, they asserted that it is not only possible, but necessary, for Colombia’s national education system to become bilingual in order to revitalize indigenous languages and acknowledge indigenous speakers as fully Colombian.

Day 2: Session 6: Multilingualism & Education, Chair: Joel Gomez (Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington DC)

Session chair Dr Joel Gomez, president of the Center for Applied Linguistics, gave a brief introduction to the work of the Center, a sponsor of the present Symposium. To start off the discussion about multilingualism and education, Keira Ballantyne and Francesca Di Silvio (Center for Applied Linguistics) presented a historico-linguistic overview of US education systems, ultimately asking two questions: Do we value the voices of culturally and linguistically diverse students, and do we work to ensure such multilingualism for all students? They critiqued the elimination of bilingual education and the lack of a national language policy, while also acknowledging a shortage of funding and teachers among other challenges to education in the US, beyond the issue of language.

Carol Benson and Erina Iwasaki (Teachers College, Columbia University) reported on their findings from two weeks of fieldwork evaluating bilingual educational models in Senegal. They found not only that all bilingual students perform better than their non-bilingual counterparts in national assessments, but also that there was strong community support for using the local languages of Wolof and Pulaar in classrooms. However, Benson and Iwasaki relayed their frustrations that, despite the academic benefits and community backing, the Senegalese education system remained sceptical about bilingual education, favouring programmes that emphasize phonemic awareness. Their research highlighted the differing perspectives and priorities of various stakeholders in international educational contexts.

Day 2: Session 7: Multilingualism & Education (continued), Chair: Thomas Ricento

Continuing the discussion of mother tongue based (MTB) education, Eduardo D. Faingold (University of Tulsa) presented his research on Denmark’s language policy and its promoting - or not - of immigrant languages in schools and society over time. While in 1984, Danish schools were required to offer MTB education, more recent legislation has been passed to improve immigrant children’s Danish acquisition and require Danish proficiency for naturalization. Faingold concluded by condemning anti-immigrant regulations that specifically marginalize non-western immigrant children and calling for the re-election of officials who support MTB education.

Beyza Björkman (Stockholm University, Sweden) turned the focus to higher education in sharing her conversation analysis of English use in a Swedish graduate program. Specifically, she analysed the communicative strategies of students, both self-initiated and initiated by others, as they navigated high-level discourse while speaking solely in English. Over all, Björkman discovered that the effectiveness of using many communicative strategies outweighed a higher English-language proficiency in communicating with others. She cited possible implications for teacher preparation training in focusing on communicative strategies rather than emphasizing language proficiency.

Day 2: Session 8: Multilingualism & Education (continued), Chair: Eduardo D. Faingold (University of Tulsa)

Taking a comparative approach to studying multilingual education, Anna Reath Warren (Uppsala University, Sweden) reported on how systems in Sweden and Australia approach mother tongue learning. Multilingual Study Guidance (MSG) provides newly arrived students to Sweden access to a tutor who works through Swedish materials using languages the student understands. In Australia, Community Language Education, sometimes run by volunteers, builds on students' schooling in hopes of preserving and celebrating multilingual society. Both cases present opportunities and challenges within mother tongue education.

Edwin Nii Bonney (University of Missouri) discussed power dynamics of language in the Ghanaian education system by asking “How does the Ghanaian national curriculum hegemonize English language practices?” Through critical discourse analysis and self-reflection, he explained that, in the current landscape, English is deemed a necessity and of a higher status, while local languages are framed as merely a less valued option. This not only silences Ghanaian voices, it also perpetuates a master narrative. Drawing on his own experiences, Nii Bonney concluded by affirming a connection between language, expression, and identity and calling for placing greater significance on local and indigenous languages in education and society at large.

7. Concluding Sessions

The protection of interpreters and translators in conflict situations: An update from RedT (Maya Hess)

Dialogue in the multilingual world cannot exist without the important role of interpreters and translators in the field, but these linguists usually enter their work at high risk. Offering an update to the discussion of the role of interpreters in the field that she and her colleagues provided to the symposium last year, Maya Hess, founder and CEO of the advocacy organization RedT, pointed to the ongoing and tragic lack of concern for interpreters and translators in conflict situations, while journalists enjoy at least a measure of protection. In landscapes of conflict, RedT responds to appeals of major translation and interpretation groups and associations and connects them to relevant resources. Hess detailed the organization’s open letter campaign for the defence of translators and interpreters, and its desire to ensure the sufficiency of protection mechanisms for linguists who work in high-risk zones. Red T calls for the respect of professional independence and rights, a broader discussion on issues of impunity, and an overall commitment to a culture of safety. Their goal is a world where translators and interpreters can work free from fear of persecution, prosecution, imprisonment, abduction, torture, and assassination. Symposium participants were urged to inform their Permanent Representatives of the issue.

A celebration of the 30th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child

The 19th of November 2019 will mark the thirtieth anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). Rosemary Salomone (St John’s University Law School) explained how the Convention was used as a basis to adopt children’s rights and provisions into state laws around the world, and has become the most widely ratified human rights treaty by UN member states. However, while the treaty was drafted during the US’s Reagan administration, signed by President Clinton, and reviewed by President Obama, the United States has still never adopted the CRC.

Hesitation to ratify the CRC is bolstered by concerns that its articles would supersede state and national laws, as well as the rights of parents. Language within the CRC, however, covers areas of state power and police power, and is protective of parents’ rights and duties. To be ratified, the treaty must first go to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, then pass in a two-thirds vote on the Senate floor. Salomone lamented that she was not hopeful for it to happen with Congress’s currently deadlocked status. But ratifying the treaty would signal to the free world that the United States respects the rights of children, and is prepared to set a model for other nations. Despite the lack of US support, the celebration of the 30th anniversary recognizes the accomplishment of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in moving the needle for children in places where formerly their rights may not have existed.

Symposium chair Humphrey Tonkin deplored the lack of public attention to the fact that the CRC has not been adopted by the USA. The Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1924), the first international treaty to protect children’s rights, had only five articles; the increased specificity of the CRC, bolstered by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, offers comprehensive protection for children’s rights.

Concluding Remarks

Humphrey Tonkin offered some final remarks on the symposium. Addressing the view of languages within the United Nations, he asserted that the work of scholars and practitioners of language rights is not yet complete. The modern world is one of many languages, ideas, and cultural differences; it is also a world that must acknowledge and promote linguistic diversity to attain equal participation and representation at all levels of society. Part of our responsibility, then, is managing the task of communicating for greater equality of discourse. To do so, we must be open to listening, speaking, and taking action in an environment that includes all stakeholders in an atmosphere of equality.

The United Nations at 75: Listening, Talking and Taking Action in a Multilingual World